Mapping the Portrayal of Females in Contemporary Indian Advertisements

SHYAMA KUMARI & SHRADHA SHIVANI
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, India

Abstract
The role of advertising as an effective vehicle of communication has long been acknowledged. It has become the important ‘part of the cultural and economic fabric of a society and continues to be a primary tool for marketing communication’ (Lane et. al., 2005). The current study examines the portrayal of women in contemporary Indian magazine and television advertisements in various product and service categories. The present study is an effort to fill the gap of limited research on gender representation in Indian context. Using content analysis, a total of 275 advertisements comprising print and television ads were examined. The result reveals the dominance of female stereotyping in Indian advertising where females were mostly depicted as a housewife, predominantly endorsing household products and mostly young female models were preferred for brand promotion by advertisers.

Keywords: Portrayal, content analysis, stereotyping, advertisements, India

References

Acevedo, C. R., Ramuski, C. L., Nohara, J. J., & Trindade, L. V. P. (2010). A Content analysis of the roles portrayed by women in commercials: 1973-2008. Revista Brasileira de Marketing, 9(3), 170-196.
Allan, K., & Coltrane, S. (1996). Gender displaying television commercials: A comparative study of television commercials in the 1950s and 1980s. Sex Roles, 35(3/4), 185-203.
Berelson, B. (1952). Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: The Free Press.
Berg, B.L. (2001). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Brokaw, S. C., & Lakshman, C. (1995). Cross-cultural consumer research in India: A review and analysis. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 7(3), 53-81.
Browne, B. A. (1998). Gender Stereotypes in Advertising on Children’s Television in 1990s: A Cross-National Analysis. Journal of Advertising, 1, 83-96.
Bush, B & Furnham A. (2013). Gender Jenga: the role of advertising in gender stereotypes within educational and non-educational games, Young Consumers: Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers, 14(3), 216 – 229.
Census of India (2011). Retrieved March 23, 2013, from http://censusindia.gov.in/
Chan, K. & Cheng, Y. (2012). Portrayal of females in magazine advertisements in Hong Kong, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 22(1), 78-96.
Coulter, R. A., Zaltman, G., & Coulter, K. S. (2001). Interpreting consumer perceptions of advertising: An application of the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique. Journal of Advertising, 30(4).
Courtney, A.E. & Lockertz, S.W. (1971). A woman’s place: an analysis of the role portrayed by women in magazine advertisements. Journal of Marketing Research, 8(1), 92-95.
Courtney, A.E. & Whipple, T.W. (1983). Sex Stereotyping in Advertising. Lexington Press, Lexington, MA.
Cutler, B.D., Javalgi, R.G. & Lee, D. (1995). The portrayal of people in magazine advertisements: the United States and Korea. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 8(2), 45-55.
Dallmann, K. M. (2001). Targeting women in German and Japanese magazine advertising: A difference-in-differences approach. European Journal of Marketing, 35(11/12), 1320 – 1341.
Das, M. (2000). Men and women in Indian magazine advertisements: A preliminary report. Sex Roles, 43(9/10). doi: 10.1023/A:1007108725661
Das, M. (2011). Gender role portrayals in Indian television Ads. Sex Roles, 64, 208–222. doi: 10.1007/s11199-010-9750-1
DGE&T Annual Employment Review (2011). Retrieved March 31, 2013, from http://dget.gov.in/publications/annualreportemployment2011.pdf
Duker, Jacob M. & Lewis R. Tucker, Jr. (1977). ‘Women Lib-ers’ Versus Independent Women: A Study of Preferences for Women’s Roles in Advertisements. Journal of Marketing Research, 14, 469-75.
Dwivedy, A.K., Patnaik, P., & Suar, D. (2009). Role portrayals of men and women in print ads. Psychological Studies, 54(3), 171–83.
Eagly, A.H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50(3), 145–158.
Edgar, P., & McPhee, H. (1974). Media She. Melbourne: Heinemann.
Emerald Article (2012). Attracting and retaining customers in a competitive market: New strategies demonstrate advertisers still have more to learn. Strategic Direction, 28 (1), 17 – 20. doi. 10.1108/02580541211189021
Ferguson, J. H., Kreshel, P. J., & Tinkham, S. F. (1990). In the pages of Ms.: Sex role portrayals of women in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 40– 51.
FICCI-KPMG (2012). Retrieved January 31, 2013, from
http://www.kpmg.com/IN/en/Press%20Release/KPMG-FICCI-Frames-Press-release- 2012.pdf
FICCI-KPMG (2014). Retrieved March 15, 2014, from
http://www.ficci.com/spdocument/20217/FICCI-KPMG-Report-13-FRAMES.pdf
Ford, J. B., & LaTour, M. S. (1993). Differing reactions to female role portrayals in advertising. The Journal of Advertising Research, 33(5), 43-52.
Ford, J. B., Voli, P. K., Honeycutt, E. D., & Casey, S. L. (1998). Gender role portrayals in Japanese advertising: A magazine content analysis. Journal of Advertising, 27(1), 1-13. Retrieved May 4, 2010, from JSTOR.
Furnham, A. & Voli, V. (1989). Gender stereotypes in Italian television advertisements. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 33, 175-85.
Furnham, A., & Bitar, N. (1993). The stereotyped portrayal of men and women in British television advertisements. Sex Roles, 29, 297–310.
Furnham, A., & Chan, F. (2004). The gender role stereotyping of men and women in Hong Kong television advertisements. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 46, 213–224.
Furnham, A., & Mak, T. (1999). Sex-role stereotyping in television commercials: A review and comparison of fourteen studies done on five continents over 25 years. Sex Roles, 41, 413–437.
Furnham, A., & Skae, E. (1997). Portrayals of men and women in British television advertisements. European Psychologist, 2, 14–51.
Furnham, A., Babitzkow, M., & Uguccioni, S. (1999). Gender stereotyping in television advertisements: A comparative study of French and Danish television. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 126(1), 79-104.
Gilly, M. C., (1988). Sex roles in advertising: a comparison of television advertisements in Australia, Mexico and the United States. Journal of Marketing, 52(2), 75-85. Retrieved May 4, 2010, from JSTOR.
Holsti, O.R., (1969). Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
http://labour.nic.in/content/reports/annual-report.php. Retrieved March 31, 2013.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International( 2007). National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2005-06, India: Key Findings. Mumbai: IIPS.
Jha Dang, P., & Vohra, N. (2005). Role portrayals of men and women in Indian television advertising. Abhigyan, 23(1), 36–44.
Kang, M. E. (1997). The portrayal of women’s images in magazine advertisements: Goffman’s gender analysis revisited. Sex Roles, 37(11/12), 979-997.
Kassarjian, H. H. (1977). Content analysis in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 4(1), 8-18.
Keller, K.L. (2003). Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring and Managing Brand Equity, 2nd Edn. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kellerman, B.J., Miller, J. & Kellerman, M.A. (1998). A Follow-Up Study of the Role Portrayal of Men and Women in General Audience Magazine Advertisements.
Kelly, J. P., Solomon, P. J., & Burke, M. C. (1977). In G. E. Miracle (Ed.), Male and female responses to women’s roles in advertising. Sharing for understanding, annual conference of the American Academy of Advertising, 94– 98. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
Kerin, R. A., Lundstrom, W. J., & Sciglimpaglia, D. (1979). Women in advertisements: retrospect and prospect. Journal of Advertising, 8(3), 37-42.
Khairullah, D. H. Z., & Khairullah, Z. Y. (2009). Cross-cultural analysis of gender roles: Indian and US advertisements. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 21(1), 58 – 75. doi 10.1108/13555850910926245
Kim, K., & Lowry, D. (2005). Television commercials as a lagging social indicator: gender role stereotypes in Korean television advertising, Sex Roles, 53, 901-910.
Kotwal, N., & Sahni, S. (2008). Perception of adolescents regarding portrayal of women in commercial advertisements on TV. Journal of Social Sciences, 17, 121–126.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology, 2nd Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Krippendorff, K. (2011). Agreement and information in the reliability of coding. Communication Methods and Measures, 5(2), 93-112.
Krippendorff, K. (2012). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.
Leigh, T. W., Rethans, A. J., & Reichenbach Whitney, T. (1987). Role portrayals of women in advertising: Cognitive responses and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research, 27(5), 54– 63.
Lin, C.L., & Yeh, J.T. (2009). Comparing society’s awareness of women: Media-portrayed idealized images and physical attractiveness. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(1), 61-79.
Liu, F., Cheng, H., & Li, J. (2009). Consumer responses to sex appeal advertising: a cross-cultural study. International Marketing Review, 26(4/5), 501-520. Retrieved December 24, 2013, from Emerald Insight.
Lundstorm, W.J., & Sciglimpaglia, D. (1977). Sex role portrayals in advertising. Journal of Marketing, 41(3), 72-79. Retrieved July 27, 2010, from JSTOR.
Lysonski, S. (1985). Role portrayals in British magazine advertisements. European Journal of Marketing, 19(7), 37-55. Retrieved July 21, 2009, from Emerald Insight.
Lysonski, S., & Pollay, R. W. (1990). Advertising sexism is forgiven, but not forgotten: Historical, cross-cultural and individual differences in criticism and purchase boycott intentions. International Journal of Advertising, 9, 317– 329.
Macnamara, J. (2005). Media content analysis: Its uses, benefits and Best Practice Methodology. Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, 6(1), 1– 34.
Manstead, A. S., & McCulloch, C. (1981). Sex-role stereotyping in British television advertisements. British Journal of Social Psychology. 20(3), 171-180.
Martin, K. (2001). How far really? Some marketers are ditching the old stereotypes, but advertising still has a long way to go. Marketing Magazine, 106(26).
Matthew, V. (1990). Faces of the Indian male: A study of stereotypes. Journal of the Market Research Society, 32(2), 217–225.
Mazzella, C., Durkin, K., Cerini, E. & Buralli, P. (1992). Sex role stereotyping in Australian television advertisements. Sex Roles, 26(7/8). doi: 10.1007/BF00289910
McArthur, L. Z., & Resko, B. G., (1975). The portrayal of men and women in American television commercials. Journal of Social Psychology, 97, 209 -220. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from Taylor and Francis Online.
Milner, L. M., & Collins, M. J., (2000). Sex-role portrayals and the gender of nations. Journal of Advertising, 29(1), 67-79. Retrieved April 2, 2010, from JSTOR.
Milner, L., & Higgs, B. (2004). Gender sex role portrayals in international television advertising over time: The Australian experience. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 26, 81–95.
Mitchell, P. C. N., & Taylor, W. (1989). Polarising trends in female role portrayals in UK advertising. European Journal of Marketing, 24(5), 41-50.
Moideen, Y (1993). Family functioning in Asian Indian adolescents: The effects of acculturation and gender. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, DePaul University, Chicago, Illinois.
Moon, Y. S. & Chan. K. (2005). Advertising Appeals and Cultural Values in Television Commercials: A Comparison of Hong Kong and Korea. International Marketing Review, 22 (1), 48-66
Morrison, M. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2003). Gender-role congruence and self-referencing as determinants of advertising effectiveness. Sex Roles, 49(5-6), 265-275.
Mouter, N., & Noordegraaf, D. V. (2012). Intercoder reliability for qualitative research. You win some, but do you lose some as well.
Munshi, S. (1998). Wife/mother/daughter-in-law: multiple avatars of homemaker in 1990’s Indian advertising. Media, Culture and Society, 20 (4), 573-591.
Neto, F., & Pinto, I. (1998). Gender stereotypes in Portuguese television advertisements. Sex Roles, 39, 153–164.
Neuendorf, K. (2002). The Content Analysis Guidebook, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Newbold, C., Boyd-Barrett, O., & Van Den Bulck, H. (Eds.). (2002). The media book. London: Arnold (Hodder Headline).
NFHS -3. http://hetv.org/india/nfhs/nfhs3/NFHS-3-Chapter-14-Women’s-Empowerment-and- Demographic-and-Health-Outcomes.pdf. Retrieved September 30, 2013.
Plakoyiannaki, E. & Zotos, Y. (2009). Female role stereotypes in print advertising: identifying associations with magazine and product categories. European Journal of Marketing, 43(11/12), 1411-1434.
Pollay, R.W., & Lysonski, S. (1993). In the eye of the beholder: international differences in ad sexism perceptions and reactions. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 25-43.
Prasad, B. D. (2008). Content Analysis. A method in Social Science Research. Teoksessa: Lal Das, DK and Bhaskaran, V (toim.).(2008): Research methods for Social Work. New Delhi: Rawat, 173-193.
Schneider, K.C., & Schneider, S.B. (1979). Trends in sex roles in television commercials. Journal of Marketing, 43(3), 79-84.
Sciglimpaglia, D., Lundstrom, W. J., & Vanier D. J., (1979). Women’s Feminine Role Orientation and Their Attitudes toward Sex Role Portrayals in Advertising. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 2(1), 163-175.
Sengupta, S. (1992). Role portrayals of women in magazine advertisements. Media Asia, 19(2),145-155.
Sexton, D.E. & Haberman, P. (1974). Women in magazine advertisements. Journal of Advertising Research, 14(4), 41-46.
Shahzad, A., & Shahwar, D. (2011). Men, women and T.V. Ads: The representation of men and women in the advertisements of Pakistani electronic media. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 3(4), 151-159. Retrieved September 7, 2012, from Academic Journals.
Sinclair, J. (1987). Images Incorporated: Advertising as Industry and Ideology, New York: Croom Helm.
Sullivan, G. L., & O’Connor, P. J. (1988). Women’s role portrayals in magazine advertising: 1958—1983. Sex Roles, 18, 181-188.
Venkatesan, M., & Losco, J. (1975). Women in magazine ads: 1959-71. Journal of Advertising Research, 15(5), 49-54.
Weber, R. P. (1990). Basic Content Analysis, 2nd Ed. Newbury Park, CA.
Wells, W., Moriarty, S., & Burnett, J. (2008). Advertising Principles and Practices, 7th Edn, Pearson Education Inc. And Dorling Kinderslay, New Delhi.
Whipple, T. W., & Courtney, A. E. (1985). Female role portrayals in advertising and communication effectiveness: A Review. Journal of Advertising, 14(3), 4-8.
Wolin, L.D. (2003). Gender Issues in Advertising: An Oversight Synthesis of Research:1970–2002. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(1), 111-129.
Zhang, L., Srisupandit., P. T., Cartwright, D., (2009). A comparison of gender role portrayals in magazine advertising: The United States, China and Thailand. Management Research News, 32 (7), 683 – 700.
Zhou, N., & Chen, Marvin, Y.T. (1997). A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today’s Portrayal, Yesterday’s Image? Journal of Business Ethics, 16, 485-495.
Zikmund, W. G., Sciglimpaglia, D., Lundstrom, W. J., & Cowell, R. G. (1984). The Effects of Gender and Product Stereotyping On Conformity Judgements: An Experiment. Advances in Consumer Research, 11, 265-269.

Shyama Kumari is a research scholar in the Department of Management at Birla In¬stitute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India. She is also working as an assistant professor at Banarsidas Chandiwala Institute of Professional Studies, Delhi. Her areas of ex¬pertise and research interest include marketing communication, brand management and consumer behaviour.
Dr. Shradha Shivani is a professor in the Department of Management at Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India. Her areas of ex¬pertise and research interest include branding, advertising and consumer behaviour.