References: Visual Public Relations in Middle Eastern Higher Education: Content Analysis of Twitter Images

  • Armstrong, E. G. (1993). The rhetoric of violence in rap and country music. Sociological Inquiry, 63, 64-83.
  • Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a two-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366-386.
  • Aubrey, J. S., & Frisby, C. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: A content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society, 14, 475-501.
  • Ballard, M. E., & Coates, S. (1995). The immediate effects of homicidal, suicidal, and nonviolent heavy metal and rap songs on the moods of college students. Youth and Society, 27, 148-168
  • Binder, A. (1993). Constructing racial rhetoric: Media depictions of harm in heavy metal and rap music. American Sociological Review, 58(6), 753-767.
  • Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106, 676–713.
  • Christenson, P. G., & Roberts, D.F. (1990).    Adolescents on Popular Music in Early Adolescence.
  • Washington, DC: Carnegie Council Medicine.
  • Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. (1997). Obscenity law and sexually explicit rap music: Understanding the effects of sex, attitudes, and beliefs. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 25(3), 217-241.
  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T-A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward an understanding of women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206.
  • Freudiger, P. & Almquist, E. M. (1978). Male and Female Roles in the Lyrics of Three Genres of Contemporary Music. Sex Roles, 4, 51-63.
  • Frisby, C., & Aubrey, J. S. (2012). Race and genre in the use of sexual objectification in female artists’ music videos. Howard Journal of Communications, 23, 66-87.
  • Gow, J. (1993). Gender roles in popular music videos: MTV’s “top 100 of all time. Paper presented at the 1993 Popular Culture Association/American Culture Association Convention; New Orleans.
  • Greenfield, P. M., Bruzzone, L., & Koyamatsu, K. (1987). What is rock music doing to the minds of our youth? A first experimental look at the effects of rock music lyrics and music videos, Journal of Early Adolescence, 7, 315-329.
  • Hall, P. C., West, J. H., & Hill, S. (2012). Sexualization in lyrics of popular music from 1959-2009: Implications for sexuality educators. Sexuality & Culture, 16, 103-117.
  • Hansen, C. H. & Hansen, R. D. (1991). Schematic information: Processing of heavy metal lyrics. Communication Research, 18, 373-411.
  • Henderson, E. A. (1996). Black nationalism and rap music. Journal of Black Studies, 26, 308-339.
  • iTunes Music Store. 2009, October 8.
  • Johnson, J. D., Adams, M. S., Ashburn, L. & Reed, W. (1995). Differential gender effects of exposure to rap music on African American adolescents’ acceptance of teen dating violence. Sex Roles, 33(7-8), 597-605.
  • Johnson, J. D., Jackson, L. A., & Gatto, L. (1995). Violent attitudes and deferred academic aspirations: Deleterious effects of exposure to rap music. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 16, 27-41.
  • Kaye B.K., Sapolsky, B.S. (2004a). Talking a ‘‘blue’’ streak: context and offensive language in prime-time network television programs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81, 911–927.
  • Kaye B. K., & Sapolsky, B.S. (2004b). Offensive language in prime-time television: Four years after television age and content ratings. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48, 554–569.
  • Klein, J. D., Brown, J. D., Childers, K.W., Olivieri, J., & Porter C. (2009). Impact of music, music lyrics, and music videos on children and youth. Pediatrics, 124, 1488-1494.
  • Krippendorff, K. (2011). “Computing Krippendorff’s alpha-reliability.” Philadelphia: Annenberg School for Communication Departmental Papers.
  • Krippendorff, K. (2004b) Reliability in content analysis: Some common misconceptions and recommendations. Human Communication Research, 30, 411-433.
  • Lynxwiler, J. & Gay, D. (2000). Moral boundaries and deviant music: Public attitudes toward heavy metal and rap. Deviant Behavior, 21, 63-85.
  • Lyrics-database.org. 2009, October 23.
  • Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Strachman, A., Kanouse, D. E., &Berry,S. A. (2006). Exposure to degrading versus nondegrading music lyrics and sexual behavior among youth. Pediatrics, 118, 430-441.
  • McLeod, D., Evelant, W., & Nathanson, A. (1997). Support for censorship of violent and misogynic rap lyrics. Communication Research, 24, 153-174
  • Pardun, C. J., L’Engle, K. L., & Brown, J. D. (2005). Linking exposure to outcomes: Early adolescents’ consumption of sexual content in six media. Mass Communication & Society, 8(2), 75-91.
  • Pinn, A. B. (1996). “Gettin’ Grown’: Notes on gangsta rap music and notions of manhood.
  • Journal of African American Men, 2, 61-73.
  • Powell, C. T. (1991). Rap music: An education with a beat from the street. Journal of Negro Education, 60, 245-259.
  • Primack, B. A., Gold, M. A., Schwarz, M. D., & Dalton, M. A., (2008). Degrading and non-degrading sex in popular music: A content analysis. Public Health Reports, 123(5), 593-600.
  • Rideout, V., Roberts, D., & Foehr, U. (2005).  Generation M: media in the lives of 8–18 year-
  • olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.
  • Rose, T. (1994). Black noise: Rap music and black culture in contemporary America. Hanover, NH:
  • Wesleyan University Press: Published by University Press of New England.
  • Rudman, L. & Lee, M. (2002). Implicit and explicit consequences of exposure to violent and misogynous rap music. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 5, 133-150.
  • Smith, S. L. (2005). From Dr. Dre to Dismissed: Assessing violence, sex, and substance use on MTV. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 22, 89-98.
  • Smith, S. L. & Boyson, A. R. (2002). Violence in music videos: Examining the prevalence and context of physical aggression. Journal of Communication, 64, 61-83.
  • Steinke, J., Lapinski, M., Zietsman-Thomas, A., Nwulu, P., Crocker, N., Williams, Y., et al. (2007). Middle school-aged children’s attitudes toward women in science, engineering and technology and the effects of media literacy training. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 12(4), 295-323.
  • Tervo, J. (2001). Music therapy for adolescents. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 79-91.
  • Watts, E. K. (1997). An exploration of spectacular consumption: Gangsta rap as cultural commodity. Communication Studies, 48(1), 42-58.
  • Weitzer, R., & Kubrin, C. E. (2009). Misogyny in rap music: A content analysis of prevalence and meanings. Men and Masculinities, 12, 3-29.
  • Wester, S. R., Crown, C. L., Quatman, G. L. & Heesacker, M. (1997). The influence of sexually violent rap music on attitudes of men with little prior exposure. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 497-508.
  • Wingood, G., DiClemente, R. J., Bernhardt, J. M., Harrington, K., Davies, S. L., Robillard, & Hook, E. W. (2003). A prospective study of exposure to rap music videos and African American female adolescent’s health. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 269-286.